Cells must be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. The structural ( load carrying) member of a module can be either the top layer or the back layer. Most modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells. Photovoltaic modules use light energy ( photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. In 1954, this design was first used by Bell Labs to create the first commercially viable silicon solar cell. In 1939, Russell Ohl created the solar cell design that is used in many modern solar panels. In 1881, the American inventor Charles Fritts created the first commercial solar panel, which was reported by Fritts as 'continuous, constant and of considerable force not only by exposure to sunlight but also to dim, diffused daylight.' However, these solar panels were very inefficient, especially compared to coal-fired power plants. After this discovery, William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day published 'The action of light on selenium' in 1876, describing the experiment they used to replicate Smith's results. The observation by Becquerel was not replicated again until 1873, when the English electrical engineer Willoughby Smith discovered that the charge could be caused by light hitting selenium.

Though these initial solar panels were too inefficient for even simple electric devices, they were used as an instrument to measure light. In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light exposure was first observed by the French physicist Edmond Becquerel. See also: Solar cell § History, and Timeline of solar cells

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